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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span>For other uses, see <a href="System_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="System (disambiguation)">System (disambiguation)</a>.</span> <span>For the set of rules that govern structure or behavior of people, see <a href="Social_system" title="Social system">Social system</a>. For the academic field, see <a href="Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a>. For the engineering, see <a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems engineering</a>.</span></div>

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<p>A <b>system</b> is a <a href="Group_(mathematics)" title="Group (mathematics)">group</a> of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.<sup id="cite_ref-merriam-webster-system_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merriam-webster-system-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A system, surrounded and influenced by its <a href="Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">environment</a>, is described by its boundaries, <a href="Structure" title="Structure">structure</a> and purpose and is expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of <a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">systems theory</a> and other <a href="Systems_science" title="Systems science">systems sciences</a>.

</p><p>Systems have several common properties and characteristics, including structure, function(s), behavior and interconnectivity.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div>

<p>The term <i>system</i> comes from the <a href="Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> word <i>systēma</i>, in turn from <a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">σύστημα</span></span> <i>systēma</i>: "whole concept made of several parts or members, system", literary "composition".<sup id="cite_ref-:1_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>In the 19th century, the French physicist <a href="Nicolas_L%C3%A9onard_Sadi_Carnot" title="Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot">Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot</a>, who studied <a href="Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a>, pioneered the development of the concept of a <i>system</i> in the <a href="Natural_science" title="Natural science">natural sciences</a>. In 1824, he studied the system which he called the <i>working substance</i> (typically a body of water vapor) in <a href="Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a>, in regard to the system's ability to do work when heat is applied to it. The working substance could be put in contact with either a boiler, a cold reservoir (a stream of cold water), or a piston (on which the working body could do work by pushing on it). In 1850, the German physicist <a href="Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius</a> generalized this picture to include the concept of the <a href="Environment_(systems)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (systems)">surroundings</a> and began to use the term <i>working body</i> when referring to the system.

</p><p>The biologist <a href="Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a> became one of the pioneers of the <a href="General_systems_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="General systems theory">general systems theory</a>. In 1945 he introduced <i>models, principles, and laws that apply to generalized systems or their subclasses, irrespective of their particular kind, the nature of their component elements, and the relation or 'forces' between them.</i><sup id="cite_ref-Bertalanfy1945_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertalanfy1945-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the late 1940s and mid-50s, <a href="Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> and <a href="Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="Ross Ashby">Ross Ashby</a> pioneered the use of mathematics to study systems of <a href="Control_system" title="Control system">control</a> and <a href="Communications_system" title="Communications system">communication</a>, calling it <a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Wiener1948_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wiener1948-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ashby1950_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ashby1950-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the 1960s, <a href="Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">Marshall McLuhan</a> applied general systems <a href="Theory" title="Theory">theory</a> in an approach that he called a <i>field approach</i> and <i>figure/ground analysis</i>, to the study of <a href="Media_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Media theory">media theory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In the 1980s, <a href="John_Henry_Holland" title="John Henry Holland">John Henry Holland</a>, <a href="Murray_Gell-Mann" title="Murray Gell-Mann">Murray Gell-Mann</a> and others coined the term <i><a href="Complex_adaptive_system" title="Complex adaptive system">complex adaptive system</a></i> at the interdisciplinary <a href="Santa_Fe_Institute" title="Santa Fe Institute">Santa Fe Institute</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Concepts">Concepts</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Environment_and_boundaries">Environment and boundaries</h3></div>

<p><a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Systems theory</a> views the world as a <a href="Complex_system" title="Complex system">complex system</a> of interconnected parts. One scopes a system by defining its <a href="Boundary_(topology)" title="Boundary (topology)">boundary</a>; this means choosing which <a href="Entities" class="mw-redirect" title="Entities">entities</a> are inside the system and which are outside—part of the <a href="Environment_(systems)" class="mw-redirect" title="Environment (systems)">environment</a>. One can make simplified representations (<a href="Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">models</a>) of the system in order to understand it and to predict or impact its future behavior. These models may define the structure and behavior of the system.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_and_human-made_systems">Natural and human-made systems</h3></div>

<p>There are natural and human-made (designed) systems. Natural systems may not have an apparent objective but their behavior can be interpreted as purposeful by an observer. Human-made systems are made with various purposes that are achieved by some action performed by or with the system. The parts of a system must be related; they must be "designed to work as a coherent entity"—otherwise they would be two or more distinct systems.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theoretical_framework">Theoretical framework</h3></div>

<p>Most systems are <a href="Open_system_(thermodynamics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Open system (thermodynamics)">open systems</a>, exchanging matter and energy with their respective surroundings; like a car, a <a href="Coffeemaker" title="Coffeemaker">coffeemaker</a>, or <a href="Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>. A <a href="Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed system</a> exchanges energy, but not matter, with its environment; like a computer or the project <a href="Biosphere_2" title="Biosphere 2">Biosphere 2</a>. An <a href="Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">isolated system</a> exchanges neither matter nor energy with its environment. A theoretical example of such a system is the <a href="Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Process_and_transformation_process">Process and transformation process</h3></div>

<p>An <a href="Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">open system</a> can also be viewed as a bounded transformation process, that is, a <a href="Black_box" title="Black box">black box</a> that is a process or collection of processes that transform inputs into outputs. Inputs are consumed; outputs are produced. The concept of input and output here is very broad. For example, an output of a passenger ship is the movement of people from departure to destination.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="System_model">System model</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems modeling</a></div>

<p>A system comprises <a href="View_model" title="View model">multiple views</a>. Human-made systems may have such views as concept, <a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">analysis</a>, <a href="Systems_design" title="Systems design">design</a>, <a href="Implementation" title="Implementation">implementation</a>, deployment, structure, behavior, input data, and output data views. A <a href="System_model" class="mw-redirect" title="System model">system model</a> is required to describe and represent all these views.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Systems_architecture">Systems architecture</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Systems_architecture" title="Systems architecture">Systems architecture</a></div>

<p>A systems architecture, using one single integrated model for the description of multiple views, is a kind of system model.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Subsystem">Subsystem</h3></div>

<p>A <b>subsystem</b> is a set of elements, which is a system itself, and a component of a larger system. The IBM Mainframe <i>Job Entry Subsystem</i> family (<a href="JES1" class="mw-redirect" title="JES1">JES1</a>, <a href="JES2" class="mw-redirect" title="JES2">JES2</a>, <a href="JES3" class="mw-redirect" title="JES3">JES3</a>, and their <a href="Houston_Automatic_Spooling_Priority" title="Houston Automatic Spooling Priority">HASP</a>/<a href="Attached_Support_Processor" title="Attached Support Processor">ASP</a> predecessors) are examples. The main <i>elements</i> they have in common are the components that handle input, scheduling, spooling and output; they also have the ability to interact with local and remote operators.

</p><p>A subsystem description is a system object that contains information defining the characteristics of an operating environment controlled by the system.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The data tests are performed to verify the correctness of the individual subsystem configuration data (e.g. MA Length, Static Speed Profile, …) and they are related to a single subsystem in order to test its Specific Application (SA).<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Analysis">Analysis</h2></div>

<p>There are many kinds of systems that can be analyzed both <a href="Quantitatively" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantitatively">quantitatively</a> and <a href="Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">qualitatively</a>. For example, in an analysis of urban <a href="Systems_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems dynamics">systems dynamics</a>, A . W. Steiss defined five intersecting systems, including the physical subsystem and behavioral system. For sociological models influenced by systems theory,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Kenneth_D._Bailey_(sociologist)" title="Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)">Kenneth D. Bailey</a> defined systems in terms of <a href="Conceptual_system" title="Conceptual system">conceptual</a>, <a href="Concrete_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Concrete (philosophy)">concrete</a>, and abstract systems, either <a href="Isolated_system" title="Isolated system">isolated</a>, <a href="Closed_system" title="Closed system">closed</a>, or <a href="Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">open</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Walter_F._Buckley" title="Walter F. Buckley">Walter F. Buckley</a> defined systems in sociology in terms of <a href="Mechanics" title="Mechanics">mechanical</a>, <a href="Organic_(model)" title="Organic (model)">organic</a>, and <a href="Process_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Process model">process models</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Bela_H._Banathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bela H. Banathy">Bela H. Banathy</a> cautioned that for any inquiry into a system understanding its kind is crucial, and defined <i>natural</i> and <i>designed</i>, i. e. artificial, systems.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, natural systems include <a href="Subatomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Subatomic">subatomic</a> systems, <a href="Living_systems" title="Living systems">living systems</a>, the <a href="Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>, <a href="Galaxies" class="mw-redirect" title="Galaxies">galaxies</a>, and the <a href="Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a>, while artificial systems include man-made physical structures, hybrids of natural and artificial systems, and conceptual knowledge. The human elements of organization and functions are emphasized with their relevant abstract systems and representations.

</p><p>Artificial systems inherently have a major defect: they must be premised on one or more fundamental assumptions upon which additional knowledge is built. This is in strict alignment with <a href="G%C3%B6del's_incompleteness_theorems" title="Gödel's incompleteness theorems">Gödel's incompleteness theorems</a>. The Artificial system can be defined as a "consistent formalized system which contains elementary arithmetic".<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These fundamental assumptions are not inherently deleterious, but they must by definition be assumed as true, and if they are actually false then the system is not as structurally integral as is assumed (i.e. it is evident that if the initial expression is false, then the artificial system is not a "consistent formalized system"). For example, in <a href="Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> this is very evident in the postulation of <a href="Theorem" title="Theorem">theorems</a> and extrapolation of proofs from them.

</p><p><a href="George_J._Klir" class="mw-redirect" title="George J. Klir">George J. Klir</a> maintained that no "classification is complete and perfect for all purposes", and defined systems as abstract, real, and <a href="Conceptual_system" title="Conceptual system">conceptual</a> <a href="Physical_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical systems">physical systems</a>, bounded and unbounded systems, discrete to continuous, pulse to <a href="Hybrid_system" title="Hybrid system">hybrid systems</a>, etc. The interactions between systems and their environments are categorized as relatively closed and <a href="Open_system_(systems_theory)" title="Open system (systems theory)">open systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Important distinctions have also been made between <i>hard</i> systems—–technical in nature and amenable to methods such as <a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">systems engineering</a>, operations research, and quantitative systems analysis—and <i>soft</i> systems that involve people and organizations, commonly associated with concepts developed by <a href="Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a> and <a href="Brian_Wilson_(systems_scientist)" title="Brian Wilson (systems scientist)">Brian Wilson</a> through <a href="Soft_systems_methodology" title="Soft systems methodology">soft systems methodology</a> (SSM) involving methods such as <a href="Action_research" title="Action research">action research</a> and emphasis of participatory designs.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Where hard systems might be identified as more <i>scientific</i>, the distinction between them is often elusive.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_system">Economic system</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic system</a></div>

<p>An economic system is a <a href="Social_institution" class="mw-redirect" title="Social institution">social institution</a> which deals with the <a href="Economic_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic production">production</a>, <a href="Distribution_(business)" class="mw-redirect" title="Distribution (business)">distribution</a> and <a href="Consumption_(economics)" title="Consumption (economics)">consumption</a> of <a href="Goods" title="Goods">goods</a> and <a href="Service_(economics)" title="Service (economics)">services</a> in a particular <a href="Society" title="Society">society</a>. The economic system is composed of <a href="Person" title="Person">people</a>, <a href="Institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutions">institutions</a> and their relationships to resources, such as the <a href="Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">convention</a> of <a href="Property" title="Property">property</a>. It addresses the problems of <a href="Economics" title="Economics">economics</a>, like the allocation and scarcity of resources.

</p><p>The international sphere of interacting states is described and analyzed in systems terms by several international relations scholars, most notably in the <a href="Neorealism_(international_relations)" title="Neorealism (international relations)">neorealist school</a>. This systems mode of international analysis has however been challenged by other schools of international relations thought, most notably the <a href="Constructivism_(international_relations)" title="Constructivism (international relations)">constructivist school</a>, which argues that an over-large focus on systems and structures can obscure the role of individual agency in social interactions. Systems-based models of international relations also underlie the vision of the international sphere held by the <a href="Institutional_liberalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional liberalism">liberal institutionalist</a> school of thought, which places more emphasis on systems generated by rules and interaction governance, particularly economic governance.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Information_and_computer_science">Information and computer science</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Computer_science" title="Computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="Information_science" title="Information science">information science</a>, an <a href="Information_system" title="Information system">information system</a> is a hardware system, <a href="Software_system" title="Software system">software system</a>, or combination, which has <a href="Component_(UML)" title="Component (UML)">components</a> as its structure and observable <a href="Inter-process_communication" title="Inter-process communication">inter-process communications</a> as its behavior.

</p><p>There are systems of counting, as with <a href="Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman numerals</a>, and various systems for filing papers, or catalogs, and various library systems, of which the <a href="Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal Classification</a> is an example. This still fits with the definition of components that are connected together (in this case to facilitate the flow of information).

</p><p>System can also refer to a framework, aka <a href="Platform_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Platform (computing)">platform</a>, be it <a href="Software" title="Software">software</a> or hardware, designed to allow software programs to run. A flaw in a component or system can cause the component itself or an entire system to fail to perform its required function, e.g., an incorrect <a href="Statement_(computer_science)" title="Statement (computer science)">statement</a> or <a href="Data_definition" class="mw-redirect" title="Data definition">data definition</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Engineering_and_physics">Engineering and physics</h3></div>

<p>In <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> and <a href="Physics" title="Physics">physics</a>, a physical system is the portion of the universe that is being studied (of which a <a href="Thermodynamic_system" title="Thermodynamic system">thermodynamic system</a> is one major example). Engineering also has the concept of a system referring to all of the parts and interactions between parts of a complex project. <a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems engineering</a> is the branch of engineering that studies how this type of system should be planned, designed, implemented, built, and maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sociology,_cognitive_science_and_management_research">Sociology, cognitive science and management research</h3></div>

<p>Social and <a href="Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive sciences</a> recognize systems in models of individual humans and in human societies. They include human brain functions and mental processes as well as normative ethics systems and social and cultural behavioral patterns.

</p><p>In <a href="Management_science" title="Management science">management science</a>, <a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">operations research</a> and <a href="Organizational_development" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational development">organizational development</a>, human organizations are viewed as <a href="Management_system" title="Management system">management systems</a> of interacting components such as subsystems or system aggregates, which are carriers of numerous complex <a href="Business_processes" class="mw-redirect" title="Business processes">business processes</a> (<a href="Organizational_behavior" title="Organizational behavior">organizational behaviors</a>) and organizational structures. Organizational development theorist <a href="Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a> developed the notion of organizations as systems in his book <i>The Fifth Discipline</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p><a href="Organizational_theorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Organizational theorist">Organizational theorists</a> such as <a href="Margaret_Wheatley" class="mw-redirect" title="Margaret Wheatley">Margaret Wheatley</a> have also described the workings of organizational systems in new metaphoric contexts, such as <a href="Quantum_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Quantum physics">quantum physics</a>, <a href="Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>, and the <a href="Self-organizing_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-organizing system">self-organization of systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pure_logic">Pure logic</h3></div>

<p>There is also such a thing as a <a href="Logical_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Logical system">logical system</a>. An obvious example is the calculus developed simultaneously by <a href="Leibniz" class="mw-redirect" title="Leibniz">Leibniz</a> and <a href="Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Another example is <a href="George_Boole" title="George Boole">George Boole</a>'s Boolean operators. Other examples relate specifically to philosophy, biology, or cognitive science. <a href="Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs" title="Maslow's hierarchy of needs">Maslow's hierarchy of needs</a> applies psychology to biology by using pure logic. Numerous psychologists, including <a href="Carl_Jung" title="Carl Jung">Carl Jung</a> and <a href="Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> developed systems that logically organize psychological domains, such as personalities, motivations, or intellect and desire.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Strategic_thinking">Strategic thinking</h3></div>

<p>In 1988, military strategist <a href="John_A._Warden_III" title="John A. Warden III">John A. Warden III</a> introduced the <a href="Warden's_Five_Rings" title="Warden's Five Rings">Five Ring System</a> model in his book, <i>The Air Campaign</i>, contending that any complex system could be broken down into five concentric rings. Each ring—leadership, processes, infrastructure, population and action units—could be used to isolate key elements of any system that needed change. The model was used effectively by <a href="Air_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Air Force">Air Force</a> planners in the <a href="Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late 1990s, Warden applied his model to business strategy.

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Complexity" title="Complexity">Complexity</a>

<ul><li><a href="Complexity_theory_and_organizations" title="Complexity theory and organizations">Complexity theory and organizations</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Formal_system" title="Formal system">Formal system</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_systems_theory" title="Glossary of systems theory">Glossary of systems theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">Market (economics)</a></li>

<li><a href="Meta-system" title="Meta-system">Meta-system</a></li>

<li><a href="System_of_systems" title="System of systems">System of systems</a></li>

<li><a href="System_of_systems_engineering" title="System of systems engineering">System of systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_art" title="Systems art">Systems art</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_body" title="Human body">Systems in the human body</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

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</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system">"Definition of <i>system</i>"</a>. <i>Merriam-Webster</i>. Springfield, MA, USA. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170605222234/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/system">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-01-16</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:1-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:1_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma">"σύστημα"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210128131333/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsu%2Fsthma">Archived</a> 2021-01-28 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, <i><a href="A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">A Greek–English Lexicon</a></i>, on Perseus Digits Library.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muellerscience.com/SPEZIALITAETEN/System/System_Definitionen.htm"><i>Definitionen von "System" (1572–2002)</i></a> by Roland Müller, (most in German).</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bertalanfy1945-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bertalanfy1945_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1945, <i>Zu einer allgemeinen Systemlehre,</i> Blätter für deutsche Philosophie, 3/4. (Extract in: Biologia Generalis, 19 (1949), 139–164.</span>

</li>

1948, <i>Cybernetics: Or the Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine.</i> Paris, France: Librairie Hermann & Cie, and Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Ashby1950-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ashby1950_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">1956. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html">An Introduction to Cybernetics</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230517080220/http://pespmc1.vub.ac.be/ASHBBOOK.html">Archived</a> 2023-05-17 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>, Chapman & Hall.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcLuhan1964" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan, Marshall</a> (1964). <i>Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man</i>. McGraw-Hill Education. reissued by Gingko Press, 2003. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58423-073-1</bdi>.</cite> <span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-hidden-error citation-comment">ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)</span></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMcLuhanFiore1967" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Marshall_McLuhan" title="Marshall McLuhan">McLuhan, Marshall</a>; <a href="Quentin_Fiore" title="Quentin Fiore">Fiore, Quentin</a> (1967). <i>The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects (1st ed.)</i>. Random House. Reissued by Gingko Press, 2001. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58423-070-0</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/i/7.3?topic=subsystems-subsystem-description">"Work management subsystem concepts: Subsystem description"</a>. <i>www.ibm.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-09-26</span></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization (CENELEC) - EN 50128</i>. Brussels, Belgium: CENELEC. 2011. pp. Table A.11 – Data Préparation Techniques (8.4).</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Steiss, 1967, pp. 8–18.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bailey, 1994.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Buckley, 1967.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Banathy, 1997.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">K.Gödel, 1931.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Checkland, 1997; Flood, 1999.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-:0-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105182224/http://glossar.german-testing-board.info/">"ISTQB Standard glossary of terms used in Software Testing"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://glossar.german-testing-board.info/">the original</a> on 5 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 March</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSenge1990" class="citation book cs1">Senge, P. M. (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bVZqAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization</i></a>. Doubleday/Currency. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780385260947</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thesystemsthinker.com/a-new-story-for-a-new-time/">"A New Story for a New Time"</a>. 13 January 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-03-12</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWarden1988" class="citation book cs1"><a href="John_A._Warden_III" title="John A. Warden III">Warden, John A. III</a> (1988). <i>The Air Campaign: Planning for Combat</i>. Washington, D.C.: National Defense University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-58348-100-4</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWarden1995" class="citation book cs1">Warden, John A. III (September 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110704071119/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html">"Chapter 4: Air theory for the 21st century"</a>. <i>Battlefield of the Future: 21st Century Warfare Issues</i>. United States Air Force. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/battle/chp4.html">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(in <i>Air and Space Power Journal</i>)</span> on July 4, 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 26,</span> 2008</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFWarden1995" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Warden, John A. III (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090113094325/http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj95/spr95_files/warden.htm">"Enemy as a System"</a>. <i>Airpower Journal</i>. Spring (9): <span class="nowrap">40–</span>55. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/apj95/spr95_files/warden.htm">the original</a> on 2009-01-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-25</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<ul><li>Alexander Backlund (2000). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/abs/10.1108/03684920010322055">The definition of system</a>". In: <i>Kybernetes</i> Vol. 29 nr. 4, pp. 444–451.</li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_D._Bailey_(sociologist)" title="Kenneth D. Bailey (sociologist)">Kenneth D. Bailey</a> (1994). <i>Sociology and the New Systems Theory: Toward a Theoretical Synthesis</i>. New York: State of New York Press.</li>

<li><a href="Bela_H._Banathy" class="mw-redirect" title="Bela H. Banathy">Bela H. Banathy</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230307015635/http://www.newciv.org/ISSS_Primer/asem04bb.html">A Taste of Systemics</a> at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 2023-03-07), ISSS The Primer Project.</li>

<li><a href="Walter_F._Buckley" title="Walter F. Buckley">Walter F. Buckley</a> (1967). <i> Sociology and Modern Systems Theory</i>, New Jersey: Englewood Cliffs.</li>

<li><a href="Peter_Checkland" title="Peter Checkland">Peter Checkland</a> (1997). <i>Systems Thinking, Systems Practice</i>. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.</li>

<li><a href="Michel_Crozier" title="Michel Crozier">Michel Crozier</a>, Erhard Friedberg (1981). <i>Actors and Systems</i>, Chicago University Press.</li>

<li><a href="Robert_L._Flood" title="Robert L. Flood">Robert L. Flood</a> (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190225103235/http://www.msbkwt.com/joomla/images/FILES2018-19/Library/E-Books/Rethinking-The-Fifth-Discipline.pdf">Rethinking the Fifth Discipline: Learning within the unknowable</a> at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived 2019-02-25). London: Routledge.</li>

<li><a href="George_J._Klir" class="mw-redirect" title="George J. Klir">George J. Klir</a> (1969). Approach to General Systems Theory, 1969.</li>

<li><a href="Brian_Wilson_(systems_scientist)" title="Brian Wilson (systems scientist)">Brian Wilson</a> (1980). <i>Systems: Concepts, methodologies and Applications</i>, John Wiley.</li>

<li>Brian Wilson (2001). <i>Soft Systems Methodology—Conceptual model building and its contribution</i>, J.H.Wiley.</li>

<li>Beynon-Davies, P. (2009). <i>Business Information + Systems</i>. Palgrave, Basingstoke. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-230-20368-6</bdi>.</li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/system" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/system">system</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/System" class="extiw external" title="q:Special:Search/System">System</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/4b.html"><i>Definitions of Systems and Models</i></a> by Michael Pidwirny, 1999–2007.</li></ul>

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</style><div id="Systems_engineering118" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Systems engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subfields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Biological_systems_engineering" title="Biological systems engineering">Biological systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Cognitive_systems_engineering" title="Cognitive systems engineering">Cognitive systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Configuration_management" title="Configuration management">Configuration management</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_systems_engineering_and_management" title="Earth systems engineering and management">Earth systems engineering and management</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Enterprise_systems_engineering" title="Enterprise systems engineering">Enterprise systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_systems_engineering" title="Health systems engineering">Health systems engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Performance_engineering" title="Performance engineering">Performance engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Reliability_engineering" title="Reliability engineering">Reliability engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Safety_engineering" title="Safety engineering">Safety engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Stanford_torus" title="Stanford torus">Sociocultural Systems Engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Requirements_engineering" title="Requirements engineering">Requirements engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Functional_Analysis_and_Allocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Functional Analysis and Allocation">Functional Analysis and Allocation</a></li>

<li><a href="System_integration" title="System integration">System integration</a></li>

<li><a href="Verification_and_validation" title="Verification and validation">Verification and validation</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_review" title="Design review">Design review</a></li>

<li><a href="System_of_systems_engineering" title="System of systems engineering">System of systems engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Business_process" title="Business process">Business process</a></li>

<li><a href="Fault_tolerance" title="Fault tolerance">Fault tolerance</a></li>

<li><a href="System_lifecycle" class="mw-redirect" title="System lifecycle">System lifecycle</a></li>

<li><a href="V-model" title="V-model">V-Model</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_development_life_cycle" title="Systems development life cycle">Systems development life cycle</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Decision-making" title="Decision-making">Decision-making</a></li>

<li><a href="Function_model" title="Function model">Function modelling</a></li>

<li><a href="Mathematical_optimization" title="Mathematical optimization">Optimization</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_function_deployment" title="Quality function deployment">Quality function deployment</a></li>

<li><a href="Spare_part" title="Spare part">Spare part</a></li>

<li><a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">System dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_Modeling_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Systems Modeling Language">Systems Modeling Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Systems analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_modeling" title="Systems modeling">Systems modeling</a></li>

<li><a href="Work_breakdown_structure" title="Work breakdown structure">Work breakdown structure</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="James_S._Albus" title="James S. Albus">James S. Albus</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li>

<li><a href="Benjamin_S._Blanchard" title="Benjamin S. Blanchard">Benjamin S. Blanchard</a></li>

<li><a href="Wernher_von_Braun" title="Wernher von Braun">Wernher von Braun</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Chestnut" title="Harold Chestnut">Harold Chestnut</a></li>

<li><a href="Wolt_Fabrycky" title="Wolt Fabrycky">Wolt Fabrycky</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_Grosz" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbara Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li>

<li><a href="Arthur_David_Hall_III" title="Arthur David Hall III">Arthur David Hall III</a></li>

<li><a href="Derek_Hitchins" title="Derek Hitchins">Derek Hitchins</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_E._Machol" title="Robert E. Machol">Robert E. Machol</a></li>

<li><a href="Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li>

<li><a href="Simon_Ramo" title="Simon Ramo">Simon Ramo</a></li>

<li><a href="Joseph_Francis_Shea" title="Joseph Francis Shea">Joseph Francis Shea</a></li>

<li><a href="Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li>

<li><a href="John_N._Warfield" title="John N. Warfield">John N. Warfield</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_engineering" title="Control engineering">Control engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_engineering" title="Computer engineering">Computer engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Industrial_engineering" title="Industrial engineering">Industrial engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li>

<li><a href="Project_management" title="Project management">Project management</a></li>

<li><a href="Quality_management" title="Quality management">Quality management</a></li>

<li><a href="Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk management</a></li>

<li><a href="Software_engineering" title="Software engineering">Software engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li>Category</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Systems_science494" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Systems_science494" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Systems_science" title="Systems science">Systems science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><br>types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Biological_system" title="Biological system">Biological</a></li>

<li><a href="Complex_system" title="Complex system">Complex</a></li>

<li><a href="Coupled_human%E2%80%93environment_system" title="Coupled human–environment system">Coupled human–environment</a></li>

<li><a href="Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecological</a></li>

<li><a href="Economic_system" title="Economic system">Economic</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_system" title="Information system">Information</a></li>

<li><a href="Multi-agent_system" title="Multi-agent system">Multi-agent</a></li>

<li><a href="Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous</a></li>

<li><a href="Recommender_system" title="Recommender system">Recommender</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_system" title="Social system">Social</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Doubling_time" title="Doubling time">Doubling time</a></li>

<li><a href="Twelve_leverage_points" title="Twelve leverage points">Leverage points</a></li>

<li><a href="Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">Limiting factor</a></li>

<li><a href="Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">Negative feedback</a></li>

<li><a href="Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">Positive feedback</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theoretical<br>fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">Cybernetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Earth_system_science" title="Earth system science">Earth system science</a></li>

<li><a href="Living_systems" title="Living systems">Living systems</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li>

<li><a href="Urban_metabolism" title="Urban metabolism">Urban metabolism</a></li>

<li><a href="World-systems_theory" title="World-systems theory">World-systems theory</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Systems_analysis" title="Systems analysis">Analysis</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="System_dynamics" title="System dynamics">Dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_engineering" title="Systems engineering">Engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_neuroscience" title="Systems neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_pharmacology" title="Systems pharmacology">Pharmacology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_philosophy" title="Systems philosophy">Philosophy</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_psychology" title="Systems psychology">Psychology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory" title="Systems theory">Theory</a> (<a href="Systems_thinking" title="Systems thinking">Systems thinking</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_systems_scientists" title="List of systems scientists">Scientists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Russell_L._Ackoff" title="Russell L. Ackoff">Russell L. Ackoff</a></li>

<li><a href="Victor_Aladjev" title="Victor Aladjev">Victor Aladjev</a></li>

<li><a href="William_Ross_Ashby" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ross Ashby">William Ross Ashby</a></li>

<li><a href="Ruzena_Bajcsy" title="Ruzena Bajcsy">Ruzena Bajcsy</a></li>

<li><a href="B%C3%A9la_H._B%C3%A1n%C3%A1thy" title="Béla H. Bánáthy">Béla H. Bánáthy</a></li>

<li><a href="Gregory_Bateson" title="Gregory Bateson">Gregory Bateson</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Stafford_Beer" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthony Stafford Beer">Anthony Stafford Beer</a></li>

<li><a href="Richard_E._Bellman" title="Richard E. Bellman">Richard E. Bellman</a></li>

<li><a href="Ludwig_von_Bertalanffy" title="Ludwig von Bertalanffy">Ludwig von Bertalanffy</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Boden" title="Margaret Boden">Margaret Boden</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Bogdanov" title="Alexander Bogdanov">Alexander Bogdanov</a></li>

<li><a href="Kenneth_E._Boulding" title="Kenneth E. Boulding">Kenneth E. Boulding</a></li>

<li><a href="Murray_Bowen" title="Murray Bowen">Murray Bowen</a></li>

<li><a href="Kathleen_Carley" title="Kathleen Carley">Kathleen Carley</a></li>

<li><a href="Mary_Cartwright" title="Mary Cartwright">Mary Cartwright</a></li>

<li><a href="C._West_Churchman" title="C. West Churchman">C. West Churchman</a></li>

<li><a href="Manfred_Clynes" title="Manfred Clynes">Manfred Clynes</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Dantzig" title="George Dantzig">George Dantzig</a></li>

<li><a href="Edsger_W._Dijkstra" title="Edsger W. Dijkstra">Edsger W. Dijkstra</a></li>

<li><a href="Fred_Emery" title="Fred Emery">Fred Emery</a></li>

<li><a href="Heinz_von_Foerster" title="Heinz von Foerster">Heinz von Foerster</a></li>

<li><a href="Stephanie_Forrest" title="Stephanie Forrest">Stephanie Forrest</a></li>

<li><a href="Jay_Wright_Forrester" title="Jay Wright Forrester">Jay Wright Forrester</a></li>

<li><a href="Barbara_J._Grosz" title="Barbara J. Grosz">Barbara Grosz</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_A._S._Hall" title="Charles A. S. Hall">Charles A. S. Hall</a></li>

<li><a href="Mike_Jackson_(systems_scientist)" title="Mike Jackson (systems scientist)">Mike Jackson</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydia_Kavraki" title="Lydia Kavraki">Lydia Kavraki</a></li>

<li><a href="James_J._Kay" title="James J. Kay">James J. Kay</a></li>

<li><a href="Faina_Mihajlovna_Kirillova" class="mw-redirect" title="Faina Mihajlovna Kirillova">Faina M. Kirillova</a></li>

<li><a href="George_Klir" title="George Klir">George Klir</a></li>

<li><a href="Allenna_Leonard" title="Allenna Leonard">Allenna Leonard</a></li>

<li><a href="Edward_Norton_Lorenz" title="Edward Norton Lorenz">Edward Norton Lorenz</a></li>

<li><a href="Niklas_Luhmann" title="Niklas Luhmann">Niklas Luhmann</a></li>

<li><a href="Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li>

<li><a href="Margaret_Mead" title="Margaret Mead">Margaret Mead</a></li>

<li><a href="Donella_Meadows" title="Donella Meadows">Donella Meadows</a></li>

<li><a href="Mihajlo_D._Mesarovic" title="Mihajlo D. Mesarovic">Mihajlo D. Mesarovic</a></li>

<li><a href="James_Grier_Miller" title="James Grier Miller">James Grier Miller</a></li>

<li><a href="Radhika_Nagpal" title="Radhika Nagpal">Radhika Nagpal</a></li>

<li><a href="Howard_T._Odum" title="Howard T. Odum">Howard T. Odum</a></li>

<li><a href="Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li>

<li><a href="Ilya_Prigogine" title="Ilya Prigogine">Ilya Prigogine</a></li>

<li><a href="Qian_Xuesen" title="Qian Xuesen">Qian Xuesen</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatol_Rapoport" title="Anatol Rapoport">Anatol Rapoport</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Seddon" title="John Seddon">John Seddon</a></li>

<li><a href="Peter_Senge" title="Peter Senge">Peter Senge</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>

<li><a href="Katia_Sycara" title="Katia Sycara">Katia Sycara</a></li>

<li><a href="Eric_Trist" title="Eric Trist">Eric Trist</a></li>

<li><a href="Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li>

<li><a href="Manuela_M._Veloso" title="Manuela M. Veloso">Manuela M. Veloso</a></li>

<li><a href="Kevin_Warwick" title="Kevin Warwick">Kevin Warwick</a></li>

<li><a href="Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a></li>

<li><a href="Jennifer_Wilby" title="Jennifer Wilby">Jennifer Wilby</a></li>

<li><a href="Anthony_Wilden" title="Anthony Wilden">Anthony Wilden</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Systems_theory_in_anthropology" title="Systems theory in anthropology">Systems theory in anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory_in_archaeology" title="Systems theory in archaeology">Systems theory in archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Systems_theory_in_political_science" title="Systems theory in political science">Systems theory in political science</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Principia_Cybernetica" title="Principia Cybernetica">Principia Cybernetica</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3ASystems_science" title="Portal:Systems science">Portal</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Systems_theory" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Systems theory">Commons</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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